For information regarding this publication or the Millerton Area Watershed Coalition Program please contact:

Jim Carl, Program Manager

Steve Haze, Program Coordinator

(559) 855-3473 / 855-5840

Email: sfcjim@psnw.com or sfcsteve@psnw.com

Website: http://www.sierrafoothill.org/watershed/

Millerton Area Watershed Coalition

C/O Sierra Foothill Conservancy

PO Box 529

Prather, CA 93651

December, 2003

Millerton Area Watershed Assessment

Table of Contents

Acknowledgements.. 8

List of Tables.. 10

List of Figures.. 11

Section 1 – Assessment Overview... 12

CALFED Bay-Delta Watershed Program and California Bay-Delta Authority. 12

Watershed Coalition Organization. 15

    History of the Coalition. 15

    Coalition’s Charter under CALFED.. 16

    Coalition’s Vision and Mission. 16

    Steering Committee. 17

    Technical Advisory Committee (TAC) 17

    Assessment Work Group. 18

Purpose of Watershed Assessment 19

Goals and Objectives of the Millerton Area Watershed Assessment 20

    Goal 1 – Broadness or Level of Comprehensiveness. 20

    Goal 2 – Accurate Statement of Condition and High Level of Support 20

    Goal 3 – Use as a Planning Tool and Plan of Action for the Coalition. 20

    Goal 4 – Use as a Planning Tool and Plan of Action for CALFED.. 20

Assessment Approach and Quality Assurance. 21

    Components and Scope. 21

    Existing Data versus New Data. 21

Regional Setting. 22

    Bioregions and the Watershed Study Area. 22

    Watershed Study Area. 27

    Historic Conditions and Chronology. 37

    Climate. 43

    Land Use and Trends. 48

    Land Ownership. 52

    Demographics. 52

    Cultural Resources. 54

    Recreational and Scenic Resources. 54

    Research Facilities and Special Management Areas. 55

Section 2 – Surface Water.. 57

Introduction. 57

Water Quantity and Use. 57

    In Stream Water Rights. 57

    Consumptive Water Use. 57

    Non-consumptive Water Use. 60

    Hydroelectric Operations, Storage and Diversions. 61

    Surface Water Levels and Flows (Seasonal) 61

Water Quality Data. 62

    Introduction. 62

    Attributes or Constituent Standards. 65

    Other Sources of Water Quality Impairment 65

Summary of Findings. 66

Conclusions. 66

Section 3 – Groundwater.. 68

Introduction. 68

Water Rights. 68

Geological Structure. 68

Water Quantity. 69

Water Quality. 73

Consumptive Water Use. 73

Summary of Findings. 73

Conclusions. 75

Section 4 – Surface and Groundwater Hydrology.. 76

Introduction. 76

Evapotranspiration. 76

Percolation. 78

Impervious Surfaces. 78

Summary of Findings. 79

Conclusions. 79

Section 5 – Sediment, Erosion and Soils.. 81

Introduction. 81

Soil Type and Structure. 81

Erosion – Natural Influences. 84

Erosion – Land Use and Infrastructural Effects. 84

Summary of Findings. 84

Conclusions. 86

Section 6 – Biodiversity and Habitat (Aquatic, Riparian, Upland) 87

Introduction. 87

Channel Habitat Types. 89

Vegetation. 91

Wildlife. 91

Fish. 91

Invertebrates. 91

State and Federally Protected Species. 92

Summary of Findings. 92

Conclusions. 94

Section 7 – Fuels and Fire.. 95

Introduction. 95

Fuel Models. 95

Fire History. 98

Summary of Findings. 101

Conclusions. 101

Section 8 – Invasive Vegetation and Noxious Weeds.. 103

Introduction. 103

Summary of Findings. 105

Conclusions. 106

Section 9 – Watershed Condition Summary.. 107

Introduction. 107

Findings. 107

    Impacts. 107

    Data Gaps. 108

Conclusion. 108

Section 10 – Recommendations.. 109

Section 1 – Assessment Overview.. 109

Section 2 – Surface Water. 109

Section 3 – Ground Water. 109

Section 4 – Surface and Ground Water Hydrology. 110

Section 5 – Sediment, Erosion and Soils. 110

Section 6 – Biodiversity and Habitat 111

Section 7 – Fuels and Fire History. 111

Section 8 – Invasive Vegetation and Noxious Weeds. 112

Section 11 – Supplemental Materials.. 113

References. 113

    Watershed Publications. 113

    Additional Internet-based Resources. 114

Appendices.. 117

Section 1 – Assessment Overview

    A – Millerton Area Watershed Coalition Visioning Workshop – Questions with         Participant Inputs, June 15, 2002.

    B – Historic Conditions in the San Joaquin River Watershed – Friant Water Users Authority.

    C – Millerton Lake State Recreational Area – Annual Usage Chart: 1986 to 2002.

    D – Precipitation in the Millerton area watershed (Monthly/Annual) – California Data Exchange Center (CDEC)

    E – Precipitation Map of the San Joaquin Basin – Science Leadership Institute, California State University – Fresno.

Section 2 – Surface Water

    A – San Joaquin Watershed Report – Central Valley Regional Water Quality Control Board, 2002.

    B – Maximum Contaminate Levels and Detection Limit – California Department of Health Services.

    C – Millerton Lake Water Testing (Ramp 3): 1998 to 2002 – U.S. Bureau of Reclamation.

    D – San Joaquin River Lost Lake water quality Testing: 1996 to 2000 – U.S. Bureau of Reclamation.

Section 3 – Ground Water

    A – Well Density Information Table – Township/Range-Section, California Department of Water Resources.

    B – Groundwater Basins Map, California Department of Water Resources.

    C – Groundwater in Fractured Rock – Water Facts #1, California Department of Water Resources.

    D – Managing Groundwater Supplies – Water Facts #2, California Department of Water Resources.

    E – Cover Page – Todd Engineers Draft Technical Memorandum – Ground Water in     Eastern Madera County, 2003.

    Report Text – Todd Engineers Draft Technical Memorandum – Ground Water in Eastern Madera County, 2003.

    Figures Appendix – Todd Engineers Draft Technical Memorandum – Ground Water in Eastern Madera County, 2003.

    Tables – Todd Engineers Draft Technical Memorandum – Ground Water in Eastern Madera County, 2003.

    F – Ground Water Discussion with Richard Fronk (Fronk’s Mountain Well Drilling) and Steering Committee, February 12, 2003.

    G – Ground Water Panelist – Bio and area of focus for Presentation to Millerton Area Watershed Coalition, October 8, 2003.

    Ground Water Presentation to Millerton Area Watershed Coalition by Panelists,     October 8, 2003.

    H – Well Standards – Water Facts #5, California Department of Water Resources.

    I – Well Completion Report – California Department of Water Resources.

    J – Listing of Community Wells Overseen by Fresno County Environmental Health.

    K – Well Status – Pine Ridge Landowners Association.

Section 4 – Surface and Ground Water Hydrology

    A – Groundwater – Water Facts #6, California Department of Water Resources.

Section 5 – Sediment, Erosion and Soils

    A – Soils Survey Map of Madera County – Natural Resources Conservation Service.

    B – Soils Survey Map of Fresno County – Natural Resources Conservation Service.

Section 6 – Biodiversity and Habitat

    A – Cover Page – Millerton Area Watershed Coalition Biological Resources Background Report, Live Oak Associates, Inc., July 31, 2003.

     Text – Millerton Area Watershed Coalition Biological Resources Background Report, Live Oak Associates, Inc., 7/31/03.

     Figure 1 – Site/Vicinity Map, Live Oak Associates, Inc., 7/28/03.

     Figure 2 – Management Plan Study Area Map, Live Oak Associates, Inc., 7/28/03.

     Figure 3 – Hydrologic Features, Live Oak Associates, Inc., 7/28/03.

     Figure 4 – Gap Vegetation, Live Oak Associates, Inc., 7/28/03.

     Figure 5 – Special Status Habitat, Live Oak Associates, Inc., 7/28/03.

     Figure 6 – Special Status Plants, Live Oak Associates, Inc., 7/28/03.

     Figure 7 – Special Status Animals, Live Oak Associates, Inc., 7/278/03.

     Figure 8 – Land Ownership, Live Oak Associates, Inc., July 28, 2003.

    B – Special Status Plants and Mexican Elder Surveys (in) Point Millerton, Madera County, Live Oak Associates, July 28, 2003.

     Figure 1 – Vicinity Map, Live Oak Associates, Inc., July 28, 2003.

     Figure 2 – Transect Map, Live Oak Associates, Inc., July 28, 2003.

     Figure 3 – Elderberry Location Map, Live Oak Associates, Inc., July 28, 2003.

    C – Publications of Land Management Assessments and Plans – Oak Woodlands, Vernal Pools, Rangelands and Grasslands (Listing)

Section 7 – Fuels and Fire History

    A – Fuels and Fire Presentation to Millerton Steering Committee by California Department of Forestry – April 8, 2003.

Section 8 – Invasive Vegetation and Noxious Weeds

    A – Field Guide to Invasive Non-Native Weeds of Mariposa, Madera, and Fresno Counties – Sierra-San Joaquin Weed Management Alliance (December, 2003)

    B – Exotic Pest Plants of Greatest Ecological Concern in California – CalEPPC (Cal-IPC) California Invasive Plant Council (1999) 

Section 1 – Assessment Overview

San Joaquin River

Tu-bichi-hu (strong water flow)

Western Mono Native American Language

“Lying immediately below, perhaps 1,000 feet at a precipitous descent was a small lake, which I judged to be one of the sources of the San Joaquin.  I had grown by occasional privation, to look upon water as a jewel beyond price, and this was rendered even more beautiful by its rough setting.” [1]

Captain John C. Fremont – December, 1845

“We are all chasing after the same molecule.”

Denis Prosperi, Chair

Madera County Water Oversight Committee, 2002

CALFED Bay-Delta Watershed Program and California Bay-Delta Authority

The Millerton Area Watershed Coalition (MAWC) Program and Assessment is operating under a California State funded CALFED grant awarded in June, 2001 (Contract Number: 4600001799 – Approval Date: March 28, 2002).  This Millerton Area Watershed Assessment publication is in fulfillment of that grant under CALFED’s Bay-Delta Watershed Program.

As a brief background to the MAWC organization and this publication, it is important to understand the purpose and context of CALFED, and its relationship with the Millerton Area Watershed Coalition.  CALFED was originally formed in 1995 as a consortium of approximately 20 State and Federal agencies that have jurisdictional and regulatory responsibilities related to water management and quality within the state of California.  CALFED’s overall goal is to develop a comprehensive water management plan for the Bay-Delta area, including the Sacramento and San Joaquin River basins.  The goal is to   assure the Bay-Delta’s long-term ecological health.

CALFED Mission Statement

The mission of the CALFED Bay-Delta Program is to develop and implement a long-term comprehensive plan that will restore the ecological health and improve water management for the beneficial uses of the Bay-Delta

CALFED is composed of a number of program elements consisting of the following:

§    Ecosystem Restoration

§    Levee System Integrity

§    Water Quality

§    Water Transfers

§    Water Use Efficiency

§    Storage

§    Delta Conveyance

And finally,

§    Watershed Management

In 1998, a Watershed Work Group was formed to assist in the development and implementation of the CALFED Watershed Program Plan.  That plan’s focus is on supporting locally based initiatives that reduce water quality problems, restore and protect watershed functions and improve water supply reliability.  The program also seeks to foster local leadership by encouraging landowners, community members, environmental organizations and local public agencies to come together on watershed projects.  The primary goals of the watershed program are the following:[2]

§    Assist local programs that help achieve overall program objectives

§    Promote integration and collaboration between programs, efforts and people at the watershed level

CALFED’s Watershed Program consists of the following Primary Objectives:[3]

§    Facilitate and improve coordination, collaboration, and assistance among government agencies, other organizations and local watershed groups

§    Develop watershed monitoring and assessment protocols

§    Support education and outreach

§    Integrate Watershed Program with other CALFED program elements

§    Define the relationship between watershed processes and the goals and objectives of CALFED

§    Implement a strategy that will ensure support and long-term sustainability

In 2000, implementation of the CALFED Watershed Program Plan commenced.  This included the first solicitations for local watershed programs in the CALFED defined “solution areas.”  In 2001, the first grants were awarded to local watershed initiatives.  The Millerton Area Watershed Coalition was one of the 54 recipients of those grants.  The CALFED Watershed Program’s Implementation Phase is expected to cover a 20- to 30-year period.  The first seven years are anticipated to continue to have extensive program review and adjustments. 

Subsequently, CALFED and member agencies such as the State Water Resources Control Board, California Environmental Protection Agency (CAL EPA) and the United States EPA have developed additional grant opportunities through the Costa-Machado Water Act of 2000 (Proposition 13) – and more recently, Proposition 50 in 2003.  Proposition 40 is anticipated to be another funding sources for watershed programs in the future under the newly constituted California Bay-Delta Authority as authored under SB 1653 by State Senator Jim Costa, (Fresno) in 2002 and signed by Governor Gray Davis.

Certain benefits have been derived as a result of the formal arrangement between the CALFED Watershed Program and the Millerton Area Watershed Coalition.  These include the following:

§    CALFED Watershed Program provides the Coalition financial resources for staff

§    CALFED Watershed Program provides the Coalition an overall framework in which to work at the local level – including administrative and programmatic direction

§    CALFED Watershed Program provides opportunities for the Coalition to better understand the various efforts underway or planned within the full CALFED Bay-Delta Water Quality Program

§    CALFED Watershed Program provides training and education for Coalition staff

§    CALFED member agencies support the Coalition’s expansion of stakeholders

§    Member agencies support the Coalition as a broad-based stakeholder organization that is community-led, collaborative and conducts its own consensus oriented decision-making

§    Member agencies support the Coalition’s development of community-based capacity, capabilities and effectiveness

§    Agencies support the Coalition in leading the community’s effort to protect and enhance the Millerton watershed

§    Agencies provide technical and financial support towards the success of the Coalition

§    Agencies provide this support in a non-regulatory capacity and in an incentive-based approach

§    Agencies identify other programs and opportunities that may be beneficial to the Coalition’s continuation and efforts

§    Agencies identify and provide information – as well as train/educate the Coalition in voluntary-based Best Management Practices (BMPs)

Watershed Coalition Organization

History of the Coalition

In 1998, Jacqueline Ball, Superintendent of the California Department of Parks and Recreation for the Millerton Lake State Recreational Area and Chuck Peck, Executive Director of the Sierra Foothill Conservancy discussed the formation of a group of local agency and non-agency stakeholders who had land management responsibilities in the Millerton area.  The original purpose of organizing the group as the Millerton Area Watershed Coalition (MAWC) was to improve communications and to collaborate among each other regarding issues and opportunities that may have been within the watershed area and as related to their administrative responsibilities. Their primary focus was on land management practices and recreational resources.

Until the end of 2001, with the awarding of the CALFED watershed program grant to the Sierra Foothill Conservancy, the Coalition consisted of the following members:

However, the vision of the original members of the Coalition was to broaden the group and determine ways in which to engage the local communities and others in watershed related challenges and opportunities.  With that in mind it was determined that the CALFED Watershed Program and the availability of grants would provide for the ability for the group to evolve into a broader community-based watershed organization.  Thus, from this initial vision, the mission of the Coalition was directed towards understanding the Millerton watershed for its biological, recreational and resource attributes – with community and stakeholder involvement. Ultimately, with a better understanding of the Millerton area watershed’s conditions – decisions and activities directed towards the future of the watershed’s health could be undertaken with continued community and stakeholder involvement – as well as their leadership.

Coalition’s Charter under CALFED

Under the CALFED Watershed Program grant, the existing Coalition agreed as a new vision to organize and support a community led coalition made up of property owners and other stakeholders whose mission would be to conduct a comprehensive watershed assessment. Other activities required under the grant are the following:[4]

·        Provide ongoing administrative and organizational support to the expanded community-based Coalition

·        Provide training and conduct ongoing outreach

·        Collaborate and coordinate with local, state and federal agencies, watershed organizations and others

·        Plan for the continuance of the Coalition and development of  a comprehensive Watershed Work Plan

·        Provide continuous program status through monthly reports to CALFED

Coalition’s Vision and Mission

Subsequent to the awarding of the CALFED Watershed Program grant to the Millerton Area Watershed Coalition member Sierra Foothill Conservancy, extensive preparation was conducted from June 15, 2001, through the first publicly held watershed meeting on May 23, 2002.  This was an informational meeting about the watershed program under CALFED.  It was conducted in the town of Friant, which adjoins the proposed watershed study area.  The meeting was attended by approximately 80 individuals representing diverse interests.

On June 15, 2002, a “Visioning” Workshop was conducted for those who expressed an interest to participate in the Coalition’s future activities.  In this case, approximately 25 individuals participated in five break-out groups under the facilitation of Noreen McDonald, a professional facilitator for the Central Sierra Watershed Committee, located in Oakhurst, Madera County.  There were four questions presented to the break-out groups to discuss related to the following:

§    What are the challenges affecting the watershed? – (Stressors)

§    What are the opportunities to protect and enhance the watershed? – (Vision)

§    What would you like to see the Coalition do? – (Mission and Purpose)

And finally,

§    What would you like to do? – (Participation and Leadership)

Significant outcomes from the workshop included the following:

§    Restating the purpose or mission of the Coalition under the CALFED Watershed Program

§    Developing the basis for determining what aspects of the watershed will be studied based on identified or presumed stressors.

§    Determining what the approach and scope would be taken for conducting the watershed assessment.

§    Identifying who wanted to provide leadership, technical resources and other types of support to the Coalition’s efforts

On August 22, 2002 the Coalition under its new leadership adopted the following mission statement:

The Millerton Area Watershed Coalition will conduct a comprehensive assessment of our watershed to provide information to promote the protection and enhancement of the watershed including the economic and environmental well being of the communities within it

and of the downstream users

Steering Committee

The formation of the Steering Committee, selection of their leadership, and how it would operate was completed in July and August of 2002.  The Steering Committee’s composition is very diverse.  Representation includes landowners within or adjoining the watershed study area, agricultural, environmental and local governmental interests.

In September of 2002, the Steering Committee made its determination of the watershed assessment’s scope and approach.

Technical Advisory Committee (TAC)

The Technical Advisory Committee evolved out of a desire by the initial Coalition Agency members to change their role from a regulatory body and become solely a technical and financial resource to the community-led Coalition as liaisons within their respective agencies.  Agency participation expanded to include the California Department of Water Resources (CALFED Administration), Central Valley Regional Water Control Board, and the National Resources Conservation Service for Fresno and Madera counties.  This advisory committee assists the Coalition as deemed appropriate, and based on the availability of personnel and other resources.

Assessment Work Group

The Assessment Work Group consists only of volunteers from the community or representing stakeholder interests.  This group was initially formed in July, 2002.  It conducted nearly 20 work sessions – and numerous individual sessions were conducted for the following:

§    Assessment Planning

§    Assignments, Roles and Responsibilities

§    Assessment Scope

§    Assessment Components

§    Assessment Approach

§    Data Gathering and Analysis

§    Assessment Publication – Format and Content

There were over 22 participants in the work sessions who include the following:

Terry Sandridge – Assessment Team Lead

Steve Blumenshine – California State University, Fresno

Dawn Carlton – Kings River Conservation District

Lloyd Carter – California Save Our Streams Council

David Cehrs – Hydrogeologist, Fresno County

Jed Davis – Native Earth Foundation

Karla Fullerton – land owner, Fresno County

Scott Kruse – Biophysical Geographer, Fresno County

Joe Middleton – Eastern Madera County Water Advisory Committee

Chuck Peck – Sierra Foothill Conservancy

Jeff Roberts – Millerton Lake Area Chamber of Commerce

Steve Starcher – Central High School, Fresno

Jason Thomas – ISIS Center, California State University, Fresno

Burke Zane – Tehipite Chapter, Sierra Club

Dave Hopelain – Eastern Madera County Water Advisory Committee

John Shiro – Sierra Foothill Conservancy

Bart Topping – land owner, Madera County

Tanna Boyd – Madera County Board of Supervisors

Denis Prosperi – Madera County Water Oversight Committee

Steve Ottemoeller – Madera Irrigation District

Karen Brown – California Department of Water Resources

Tracy Rowland – U.S. Bureau of Land Management

Purpose of Watershed Assessment

Under CALFED, there are four (4) distinct phases that watershed programs are encouraged to take:

§    Assess (Watershed Condition)

§    Plan (Recommendations)

§    Implement (Projects)

§    Manage (Monitor, Measure and Adjust)

 The purpose of this watershed assessment is to determine what the current or baseline conditions may be. The Visioning Workshop of June, 2002 was the first step in determining what the possible or perceived challenges or stressors were that could be affecting the overall condition of the watershed.  The Assessment Team and Steering Committee once formed identified what conditions or attributes of the watershed would be reviewed – such as water quality, noxious weeds, fuel load and erosion.  Ultimately the assessment approach, scope and content were agreed-upon by these groups and have been articulated by this publication.

Goals and Objectives of the Millerton Area Watershed Assessment

There are four (4) general goals of the watershed assessment that can be deemed as desired outcomes:

Goal 1 – Broadness or Level of Comprehensiveness

·   Objective 1 – Insure that the assessment encompasses standard watershed research activities (hydrology, biology and geology), their methodologies and identified attributes

·   Objective 2 – Insure that the depth and scope of the assessment does not exceed the capacity of the Steering Committee, Assessment Work Group and Technical Advisory Committee

Goal 2 – Accurate Statement of Condition and High Level of Support

·   Objective 1 – Insure that the data obtained is relevant, accurate and verifiable

·   Objective 2 – Insure that the assessment – data collected, analysis and findings has the highest level of support from the Steering Committee, Assessment Work Group and Technical Advisory Committee

Goal 3 – Use as a Planning Tool and Plan of Action for the Coalition

·   Objective 1 – The analysis, findings and recommendations of the assessment can be used as a planning tool and development of a Plan of Action supported by the Steering Committee, Assessment Work Group and Technical Advisory Committee

Goal 4 – Use as a Planning Tool and Plan of Action for CALFED

·   Objective 1 – The analysis, findings and recommendations of the assessment can be incorporated into CALFED’s program

Assessment Approach and Quality Assurance

Components and Scope

The Steering Committee reviewed a number of Watershed Assessment methodologies and other programs to determine what the components and scope of this assessment would be.  These included the following:

·   Generic Assessment and Management Plan Outline, Karen Brown, CALFED Administrator – California Department of Resources

·   Working at a Watershed Level – Interagency Watershed Training Cooperative (State / Federal)

·   Oregon Watershed Assessment Manual – Oregon Watershed Enhancement Board (OWEB), State of Oregon

Additionally, the group reviewed a number of actual watershed assessments completed under the OWEB program.  Based on their review, a determination was made for synthesizing these various approaches into specific components and attributes as outlined in this publication. 

Quality Assurance is based on the following:

·   Verifiable information or source data

·   Reference publications

·   Peer Review by Coalition members

·   Technical Advisory Committee (TAC) review

Existing Data versus New Data

During the planning and scoping phase of the watershed assessment, a significant amount of discussion revolved around the Coalition’s capacity and capability to undertake a field-based investigation versus collecting and analyzing existing data relevant to the Millerton Watershed Study Area.  The Steering Committee made the determination that the initial assessment would have to remain focused on existing data – or the absence of information – and any gaps that may be discovered.  Any field work or verification undertaken would have to be inconsequential to this report – and deferred as a follow-up effort or, as part of a Plan of Action.

Regional Setting

Bioregions and the Watershed Study Area

The Millerton watershed assessment is primarily situated within the Sierra Bioregion as defined by the California Resources Agency’s California Environmental Resources Evaluation System (CERES).  A small portion of the watershed includes the San Joaquin Valley bioregion.  The needs of the San Joaquin Valley for agriculture and a growing population play an important role in demands placed upon the watershed.  Information on the San Joaquin Valley bioregion is presented as well.

Figure 1 – Bioregions of California and Millerton Watershed

General Overview of the Sierra Bioregion

The Sierra Bioregion[5] is a vast and rugged mountainous area extending some 380 miles along California's eastern side and largely contiguous with Nevada. Named for the Sierra Nevada mountain range it encompasses, the Sierra Bioregion includes magnificent forests, lakes, and rivers that generate much of the state's water supply. It shares spectacular Lake Tahoe with Nevada and features eight national forests, three national parks – Yosemite, Kings Canyon and Sequoia – numerous state parks, historical sites, wilderness, special recreation and national scenic areas, and mountain peaks that beckon climbers, including 14,495-foot Mt. Whitney.

Location, Cities, People

    Eighteen counties, or their eastern portions, comprise the Sierra Bioregion: Alpine, Amador, Butte, Calaveras, El Dorado, Fresno, Inyo, Kern, Madera, Mariposa, Mono, Nevada, Placer, Plumas, Sierra, Tulare, Tuolumne and Yuba.  The bioregion extends from the northern edge of the Plumas National Forest south to Tejon Pass in the Tehachapi Mountains about 30 miles southeast of Bakersfield. The northern half of the Sierra Bioregion is bordered by the Nevada state line to the east and the Sacramento Valley floor to the west. The southern half of the Sierra extends westward from the Nevada state line and the western edge of the Bureau of Land Management's California Desert Conservation Area to the San Joaquin Valley floor. California's historic Mother Lode region of 19th century Gold Rush fame is in the Sierra Bioregion.

 Scattered through the mountains are small cities such as Truckee, Placerville, Quincy, Auburn, South Lake Tahoe, and Bishop, and picturesque mountain hamlets. The colorful history and rustic charm of the Sierra is captured in towns such as Markleeville, Sonora, Angels Camp – site of the annual Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County immortalized by Mark Twain – Oakhurst, Auberry, Big Creek, and Three Rivers, to name a few. The Sierra Nevada Ecosystem Project (SNEP) fixed the Sierra population at 650,000, which is consistent with 1990 census figures.

 Major routes for vehicular traffic are Interstate 80, U.S. Highways 50 and 395, and state highways 4, 41, 49, 70, 88, 89, 108, 120, 168, and 178. Some mountain roads at higher elevations are closed in winter because of snow, and highways frequently require chains or snow tires for travel.

Tourist Attractions 

and Nevada, offers water sports and golf in summer, spectacular skiing in winter, and – on the Nevada side (and just outside the bioregion) – casino gambling anytime. High tech has emerged as a significant industry in the Sierra, introducing satellite, on-line, and computer software companies and stimulating entrepreneurial small businesses. This growing segment of the economy joins staples such as hydropower, tourism and recreation. Other industries include logging, cattle ranching, and – in the northern Sierra foothills – apple orchards and wineries.

Climate and Geography

 The climate varies with the elevation, offering cold snowy winters and cool summers at higher elevations and rainy winters and hot summers in the foothills. Summers are dry. Snowy winters in the Northern Sierra are crucial to California's water supply, which depends heavily upon spring snowmelt to feed the reservoirs of the State Water Project and a portion of the federal Central Valley Project. The projects supply about two-thirds of California's water for irrigation, drinking, and industrial use. Snowfall also is welcomed by the ski industry and a myriad of other businesses that serve and supply skiers. Mild dry mountain summers accommodate outdoor sports and activities, but when high pressure areas push temperatures upward and gusty winds blow, California is vulnerable to wildfires that consume thousands of acres of brush and timber every year and destroy homes.

 National forests of the Sierra Bioregion are the Plumas, Tahoe, Sierra, El Dorado, Stanislaus, Sequoia, Inyo, and Toiyabe. Major rivers include the American, Feather, Yuba, Cosumnes, Tuolumne, Merced, San Joaquin, Kern, Owens, Kings, Carson, Truckee, Walker, and Stanislaus. Mono Lake east of Yosemite is famous for its peculiar tufa formations rising from the lake bed.

Plants and Wildlife

The Sierra Bioregion is rich in biodiversity, containing over half the plant species found in California and more than 400 of the state's terrestrial wildlife species, or about two-thirds of the birds and mammals and half the reptiles and amphibians. The variety of habitat types include annual grassland, blue oak savannah, chaparral, ponderosa pine, black oak woodland, mixed conifer, red fir, riparian, alpine meadow, Jeffrey pine, sagebrush, and bitter brush.

Animals that inhabit the Sierra Bioregion include lodgepole chipmunk, mountain beaver, California mountain king snake, black bear, wolverine, California big horn sheep, Pacific fisher, mule deer, and mountain lion. The California Golden Trout -- the state fish -- is native to the Southern Sierra. Birds include the northern goshawk, mountain chickadee, pine grosbeak, California spotted owl, mountain quail, willow flycatcher, bald eagle, and great grey owl.

General Overview of the San Joaquin Valley Bioregion

The San Joaquin Valley Bioregion in the heart of California is the nation’s top agricultural producing region, sometimes called “the nation's salad bowl” for the great array of fruits and vegetables grown in its fertile soil. The bioregion is bordered on the west by the coastal mountain ranges. Its eastern boundary joins the southern two-thirds of the Sierra bioregion, which features Yosemite, Kings Canyon, and Sequoia National Parks.

Location, Cities, People

Eight counties comprise the San Joaquin Valley bioregion, including all of Kings, much of Fresno, Kern, Merced and Stanislaus counties, and portions of Madera, San Luis Obispo and Tulare counties. This growing bioregion, the third most populous out of ten, has an estimated 2 million people, according to 1990 census data. The largest cities are Fresno, Bakersfield, Modesto, and Stockton. Some of California's poorest cities are in Fresno, Kern, and Tulare counties. At its northern end, the San Joaquin Valley bioregion borders the southern end of the Sacramento Valley bioregion. To the west, south, and east, the bioregion extends to the edges of the valley floor. Native people of the bioregion include the Mono and Yokut Indians. Native lands include the Tule River Indian Reservation in Tulare County, North Fork, Cold Springs (Tollhouse), Table Mountain (Friant) and Big Sandy (Auberry) Rancherias in Fresno County, and Santa Rosa Rancheria in Kings County.

Interstate 5 and State Highway 99 are the major north-south roads that run the entire length of the bioregion. Other main routes include State Highways 33, 41, 43, 65, 132, 140, 168, 178, 180, and 198.

Industries

The San Joaquin Valley is California's leading agricultural producing bioregion, and five of its counties – Fresno, Kern, Tulare, Merced, and Stanislaus – rank among the state's top 10 counties in farm production value. Oil and gas also are important industries in the San Joaquin bioregion. The deepest wells and about half of the largest oil fields are found in Kern County, as is the Elkhorn Hills Naval Petroleum Reserve. Lemoore Naval Air Station west of Visalia also is in this bioregion.

Climate and Geography

Well-suited for farming, the bioregion is hot and dry in summer with long, sunny days. Winters are moist and often blanketed with heavy fog. The broad, flat valley is ringed by the Diablo and Coast Ranges on the west and the Sierra Nevada foothills on the east. Habitat includes vernal pools, valley sink scrub and saltbush, freshwater marsh, grasslands, arid plains, orchards, and oak savannah. The growth of agriculture in the Central Valley has converted almost all the historic native grassland, woodland, and wetland to farmland.

The major river is the San Joaquin, with tributaries of the lower Stanislaus, Tuolumne, Merced, and Fresno rivers. The California Aqueduct extends the entire length of the bioregion on the west side of the valley. The southern portion of the bioregion includes the Kings, Kaweah, Tule and Kern rivers, which drain into closed interior basins. No significant rivers or creeks drain into the valley from the Coast Range.

Plants and Wildlife

Historically, millions of acres of wetlands flourished in the bioregion, but stream diversions for irrigation dried all but about five percent. Precious remnants of this vanishing habitat are protected in the San Joaquin Valley bioregion in publicly-owned parks, reserves, and wildlife areas. Seasonal wetlands are found at the Kern National Wildlife Refuge west of Delano, owned by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and the San Luis Refuse complex in Merced County. They attract a variety of ducks, shorebirds, and song birds, as well as peregrine falcons.

The Tule Elk State Reserve west of Bakersfield, owned by the state Department of Parks and Recreation, features the habitat of the tule elk – natural grassland with ponds and marshes. The reserve sustains four endangered species – the San Joaquin kit fox, blunt-nosed leopard lizard, San Joaquin antelope squirrel, and Tipton kangaroo rat – the threatened plant Hoover's woolystar, and other rare species, such as western pond turtles, tri-colored blackbird, and northern harrier. Endangered species of the bioregion also include the California tiger salamander, Swainson's hawk, and Fresno kangaroo rat. Other rare species include the western yellow-billed cuckoo and valley elderberry longhorn beetle.

About one-fifth of the state's remaining cottonwood and willow riparian forests are found along the Kern River in the South Fork Wildlife Area. Great blue herons, beavers, coyotes, black bears, mountain lions, red-shouldered hawks, and mule deer can be seen in the wildlife area. Other wildlife viewing sites are Millerton Lake State Recreation Area east of Madera, Little Panoche Wildlife Area near Los Banos, and the Valley Grasslands of Merced County, which attract 500,000 to 1 million birds each winter to lands owned by the state Departments of Fish and Game and Parks and Recreation, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and privately. The San Luis Dam and Reservoir area, jointly operated by the state Department of Water Resources and U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, draws wintering bald eagles, abundant ducks, gopher snakes, San Joaquin kit foxes, and black-tailed deer.

Rare plants in the bioregion include Mason's lilaeopsis, San Joaquin woollythreads, and California hibiscus.

Watershed Study Area

The Millerton Watershed Study Area covers part of the upper San Joaquin River Basin (USGS Hydrological Unit Code 18040006).

Figure 2 – Millerton Watershed Study Area Map

The study area is situated approximately 10 miles east of the Fresno/Clovis metropolitan area in the Sierra Nevada foothill region rising above the San Joaquin Valley floor.  It extends eastward into the Sierra National Forest in both Fresno and Madera counties.  The study area encompasses approximately 148,000 acres, or 231 square miles, of watershed drainage of which 100,000 acres, or 156 square miles are situated within eastern Madera county – and 48,000 acres, or 75 square miles, within eastern Fresno County.  Of this amount, 25,000 acres, or approximately 15 percent are under State or Federal management and 3,600 acres, or approximately two percent are privately managed as a land trust by the Sierra Foothill Conservancy.  The remaining 83 percent is under private land ownership.

The watershed study area elevation starts out at approximately 320 feet elevation on the San Joaquin River near Road 206, approximately .75 of a mile below Friant Dam, (River Mile 266).  The area generally is rangelands intermixed with annual non-native grasses, foothill pines and oak savannahs.  The highest elevation is approximately 4,700 feet at the headwaters of the Finegold watershed (Thornberry Mountain) and consists of mixed conifer and oak woodlands.

 Along the San Joaquin, there are unique “Table Top” geological formations that are remnant volcanic flow-created plateaus with vernal pools.  There are over 355 miles of river and streams within the upper San Joaquin watershed flowing 28 miles within the area under study (approximately River Mile 267 to River Mile 295).  The largest stream drainage with 36 stream miles is Finegold Creek in Madera County.  In addition, there are approximately 30 miles of man-made diversions and inundated areas.  There are approximately 1.861 million acre feet of annual average surface water run-off that is accumulated in the upper basin.  Millerton Lake’s maximum storage capability at any given time is 520,000 acre feet.  Approximately 98 percent of the collected run-off is diverted via the Friant-Kern and Madera canals at Friant Dam. All of the surface water collected is allocated for agricultural and urban usage.

The area under study includes major tributary streams along the upper San Joaquin River beginning with the Cottonwood Creek watershed in eastern Madera County to just below Friant Dam and Millerton Lake at approximately the 300 foot elevation.  Friant Dam  is operated by the Bureau of Reclamation as part of the Central Valley Project for flood control, irrigation and drinking water.  The furthest upstream portion of the San Joaquin River within the Study Area includes Kerchoff reservoir (River Mile 294).  This is operated as a hydroelectric facility by Pacific Gas & Electric Company just north of Auberry, Fresno County.  Other significant tributaries include Finegold Creek in Madera County and Big Sandy Creek in Fresno County.

Figure 3 – Major Watersheds within the Study Area

Friant Dam and Millerton Lake[6]

General Description

The Friant Division stores and conveys San Joaquin River water to various parts of the southern part of the semiarid Central Valley. The main features of this division are Friant Dam, Friant-Kern Canal, and Madera Canal, all constructed and operated by the US Bureau of Reclamation.

Friant Dam is located on the San Joaquin River, 25 miles northeast of Fresno, California. Completed in 1942, the dam is a concrete gravity structure, 319 feet high, with a crest length of 3,488 feet. The dam controls San Joaquin River flows, provides downstream releases to meet irrigation requirements above Gravelly Ford, and provides flood control, conservation storage, diversion into Madera and Friant-Kern Canals, and delivers water to a million acres of agricultural land in Fresno, Kern, Madera, and Tulare Counties in the San Joaquin Valley. The reservoir, Millerton Lake, first stored water on February 21, 1944. It has a total capacity of 520,528 acre-feet, a surface area of 4,900 acres, and is approximately 15 miles long. The lake's 45 miles of shoreline varies from gentle slopes near the dam to steep canyon walls farther inland. The reservoir provides boating, fishing, picnicking, and swimming.

Reclamation designed Friant's spillway to pass flood water through Millerton Lake. Flow over the spillway is controlled by three 100-foot-wide by 18-foot-high drum gates operated by buoyancy. The capacity of the spillway is 83,020 cfs (cubic feet per second) at elevation 578.0. The gates rise by flotation when water enters each gate chamber. The watertight gates are in the recess of the spillway, forming a portion of the crest when lowered. Engineers designed the foundation drainage holes at a 5-inch diameter to reduce the number of clearing and redrilling intervals required by water-deposited sediments. Due to frequent drought cycles in central California over the past fifty years, water seldom spilled at Friant.   However, Flooding did occur below Friant Dam in 1997.

Parts of the dam’s crest and other supplementary fixtures that were described as "excellent-looking" in the late 1960s, have now developed long, wide cracks. Concrete expansion is visible along the top six feet of the crest, the chute surface, and the reinforced concrete portions of the structural framing around the outlets. In 1984, Reclamation predicted that deterioration and seepage would eventually jeopardize the safe operation of the dam. An engineers’ safety report recommended that, after 44 years of service, a modification study be conducted to prevent the concrete's continuing decay.

The Friant Division has three separate river and canal outlets: the river outlet works, the Friant-Kern Canal, and the Madera Canal. The river outlet works are four 110-inch-diameter steel pipes through Friant Dam that are controlled by four 96-inch-diameter hollow-jet valves at the outlet ends.  The valves release water down a chute and into a stilling basin, which dissipates the water’s energy. The capacity of the four hollow-jet valves is 16,400 cfs; however, the flow through the valves seldom exceeds 100 cfs. Small releases to the river flow through two 24-inch-diameter steel pipes branching from Penstocks 3 and 4. Releases are controlled by two 18-inch-diameter needle valves at the outlet ends.

The Friant-Kern Canal outlet works are located on the left side of the spillway. They consist of a stilling basin and four 110-inch steel pipes through the dam. These pipes are controlled by four 96-inch-diameter hollow jet valves at the outlet ends. The hollow-jet valves release water down a chute and into a stilling basin, which dissipates the water’s energy.

More than 350 overhead and underground telephone lines, telegraph lines, power lines, and oil and gas lines were moved to higher elevations or relocated during construction of the Friant-Kern Canal. Heavy crawler tractors and bulldozers that were equipped with attachments to cut roots below the surface burrowed through vineyards and orchards. Along a 113-mile reach between the dam and the White River, more than 500 different structures, including overchutes, drainage inlets, irrigation crossings, and turnouts were built. During construction, placement of concrete lining was aided by the use of a traveling gantry. Almost 85 percent of the canal is concrete-lined. In those sections, the canal's maximum top width is 128 feet, decreasing to a bottom width of 24 feet, with water depth dropping from 19.9 to 11 feet. In the earth-lined sections, water depth varies, and the canal bottom width ranges from 64 to 40 feet.  

Friant-Kern Canal

The Friant-Kern Canal carries water over 151.8 miles in a southerly direction from Millerton Lake to the Kern River, four miles west of Bakersfield. The water is used for supplemental and new irrigation supplies in Fresno, Tulare, and Kern Counties. Construction of the canal began in 1945 and was completed in 1951. The canal has an initial capacity of 5,000 cubic feet per second that gradually decreases to 2,000 cubic feet per second at its terminus in the Kern River.

Madera Canal

The 35.9-mile-long Madera Canal carries water northerly from Millerton Lake to furnish lands in Madera County with a supplemental and a new irrigation supply. The canal, completed in 1945, has an initial capacity of 1,000 cfs, decreasing to a capacity of 625 cubic feet per second at the Chowchilla River. In 1965, the canal lining from the headworks to milepost 2.09 was raised so that 1,250 cfs could be delivered.

The outlet works features two 91-inch-diameter steel pipes controlling releases through two 86-inch-diameter interior differential needle valves at the outlet ends. The needle valves discharge into a stilling basin that is the starting point of the Madera Canal. The canal bottom width varies from 8 to 10 feet in the concrete-lined sections and from 20 to 24 feet in the earth-lined sections. The water depth varies from seven to nine feet in all sections. Approximately 79 percent of the canal is earth-lined. Water ran for the first time through the entire length of Madera Canal on June 10, 1945, and deliveries were made a month later.

Development

Historic Setting

By 1895, runoff from the Sierra snow pack was driving turbines to provide electricity to much of the city of Fresno. By the 20th century's first decade, powerful electric motors were driving pumps to force water from ever increasing depths beneath the valley floor. The head of the Orange Cove Water District, southeast of Fresno, remembered that in the mid 1920s and early 1930s:  "Our pumps were producing 150 to 175 gallons per minute. In 1931 they were producing 50 gallons a minute. The people were just pumping all the water right out of the ground." The disappearing aquifer caused the abandonment of forty thousand acres on the east side in the late 1920s. To capture and control the San Joaquin River, Reclamation in the mid 1930s designed a straight, 319-foot high concrete gravity dam which would impound a half-million acre-feet of flows from the river, providing downstream releases to the fields of some 15,000 small farms. The first surveys for the Friant Dam commenced in November 1935, and studies of where to dig two delivery canals followed in early 1936.

Because of the dual complexities of moving water from one watershed to another and diverting the natural flow of the San Joaquin, a number of water rights claims had to be settled before construction progressed. California water law provides for riparian rights entitling a land owner on a stream to the full beneficial use of the stream's natural flow. Reclamation could not divert water away from a stream until it settled the question of downstream water rights. Reclamation settled negotiations with the estate of Henry Miller, the holder or the largest water rights claims on the lower San Joaquin, in the spring of 1939.

Settlement of Project

Between 1935 and 1940, the population of the San Joaquin Valley exploded: Tulare County increased by 38.4 percent, Kings County by 38.5 percent, and Kern County by 63.6 percent. Reacting to a wartime demand, cotton became California's "outstanding crop" by the mid 1940s, displacing citrus. The lands of the Friant Division were no different, as cultivating and picking cotton drove each of the four counties economies. Almost a half-century later, by the 1990s, approximately 15,000 small farms, averaging 63 acres each, were spread throughout the Division. However, that figure is deceiving, as the average size of a farm in Kern County is 1,473 acres.

Project Authorization

In 1933-34, when the State of California could not find enough takers to buy revenue bonds to complete the California Central Valley Project Act, it went to Washington seeking assistance. The passage of the Rivers and Harbors Act of 1935 by the Congress put funding under Federal direction and construction under the Corps. By order of the President, $20 million was transferred from the Emergency Relief Act funds to the Department of the Interior for construction of Friant Dam and other initial features on September 10, 1935. The President signed the Act later that year.

Estimated cost of the Friant Dam and Reservoir came in at $14 million, the Friant-Kern Canal came in at $26 million, and the Madera Canal was $3 million. The Water Project Authority represented the State of California in negotiations with the Federal Government. In March 1936, the Authority signed a cooperative agreement with the United States creating three divisions, including Friant, for the Central Valley Project. Six months later, the Authority approved Reclamation's prospective location of the Friant Dam and the Bureau's design of the dam and canals. Central Valley Project legislation was reauthorized as the Rivers and Harbors Act of 1937. Along with Friant Dam and the Friant-Kern and Madera Canals, initial major features authorized were Shasta and Keswick Dams, the Tracy Pumping Plant and the Delta-Mendota Canal. The amendment transferred a $12 million authorization from the 1935 Rivers and Harbors Act earmarked for flood control and navigation to Department of the Interior. More importantly for Reclamation, the 1937 Act placed the CVP under Reclamation law. Additional funding under the Rivers and Harbors Act of 1940 allowed for improvement of certain rivers and harbors in the interest of national defense.

Uses of Project Water

 In 1990, on 837,079 acres irrigated by the Friant Division, growers gathered $1.9 billion in gross revenue from more than 90 varieties of crops. Fruits alone provided a $1.3 billion contribution to that total.

Flood Control

Friant Dam on the San Joaquin River played a key role during central California's unprecedented 1997 floods in which the fish hatchery was washed out, a mobile home park was damaged and livestock were killed. Friant Dam has Flood Control Storage space in the reservoir during the fall and winter months.   The amount of flood control storage space is dictated from a U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Reservoir Regulation Manual.  

Recreation

The US Bureau of Reclamation has an arrangement with the California Department of State Parks and Recreation to administer the recreational resources at Millerton Lake as a State Recreational Area for public benefit.  Activities include boating, skiing, fishing, hiking, camping and day-use.

Storage Investigation

Under CALFED, and on behalf of the California Department of Water Resources, the US Bureau of Reclamation has initiated the Upper San Joaquin River Storage Investigation with stakeholder involvement.  This program is determining the feasibility of increasing storage by 700,000 acre feet or more within the Millerton watershed[7].

Upper San Joaquin River Basin[8]

The San Joaquin from its 14,000 feet alpine headwaters to the San Francisco Bay-Delta is the second largest river system in California.  The upper San Joaquin River Basin encompasses approximately 1,720 square miles from Friant Dam up to the headwaters of its north, middle and south forks.  The geographical area of the basin include the high elevation crest of the Sierra Nevada mountain range from Yosemite National Park at its northernmost extent –  easterly down the Mono Creek drainage and Mono Pass – and finally as the south fork of the San Joaquin flowing from Goddard Canyon, Kings Canyon National Park. 

There are a total of 20 water courses in the upper basin, 498 lakes – of which nine are man-made for power production.  There are a total of 1,100,800 acres of watershed in the upper basin and 1,900 river/stream miles of which 1,435 are perennial river/stream miles.  The Millerton Watershed Study area and its watersheds are essentially below the confluence of the higher elevation drainage and focused on the foothill watersheds.

Cottonwood Creek Watershed

This is the lowermost watershed within the assessment area and is situated on the Madera County side of the San Joaquin River.  There are approximately 22,864 acres or more than 35 square miles of the Cottonwood watershed within the study area.  The watershed consists of over 52 miles of intermittent stream drainage.  The confluence of the stream at the San Joaquin River is less than a quarter mile below the base of Friant dam and Millerton Lake at approximately the 300 foot elevation, (approximately River Mile 267).  The highest elevation of Cottonwood Creek is approximately 1,200 feet. Cottonwood is a naturally flowing intermittent or seasonal stream.  It is a non-impeded drainage due to the fact that the Madera Canal has a siphon under the creek near its confluence with the San Joaquin River.  There are no known diversions or on-stream storage facilities.  There is an automated gauging station on the stream, (California Data Exchange Center ID “CTK”).[9] 

The headwaters of the Cottonwood watershed are located primarily on the San Joaquin Experimental Range administered by the US Forest Service’s Pacific Southwest Research Station.  The Experimental Range is over 4,400 acres in size.  Most of the watershed is privately owned and used primarily for cattle grazing.  There is a 600-acre conservation easement on private property upstream where the main branches of the Cottonwood converge, (see watershed map).  This is also the only known riparian restoration program that is currently underway.  The program is being sponsored by the property owner – and with students and instructors from Central High School, Fresno.  The San Joaquin River Conservancy (State of California) acquired approximately 50 acres of the Cottonwood watershed at the confluence to the San Joaquin River.  There are no communities within the Cottonwood watershed.  The nearest community is the town of Friant.

Finegold Creek Watershed

The Finegold Creek watershed is situated on the Madera County side of the San Joaquin River drainage above Friant Dam (River Mile 273).  It is the largest watershed within the assessment area.  Most of the watershed is privately owned and used primarily for cattle grazing.  The watershed is over 58,000 acres or more than 90 square miles in size.  The watershed consists of over 63 miles of intermittent stream drainage.  The confluence of the stream at the San Joaquin River is approximately 6 miles above Friant dam using the 560 feet spillway elevation, (approximately River Mile 273).  The highest elevation of Finegold is approximately 4,700 feet at its headwaters within the Sierra National Forest (Thornberry Mountain). Finegold is a naturally flowing intermittent or seasonal stream.  There are no known diversions, or on-stream storage facilities.  There is no known active gauging station on the stream, (A remnant station is located on private property know as Point Millerton).  Within the watershed are the small communities of O’Neals and North Fork.

Big Sandy Creek Watershed

The Big Sandy watershed is situated on the Fresno County side of the San Joaquin River drainage above Friant Dam.  At 22,000 acres or 34 square miles, it is the smallest of the three watersheds within the assessment area.  The watershed consists of a little more than 11 miles of intermittent stream drainage.  The confluence of the stream at the San Joaquin River is approximately 9 miles above Finegold Creek or 15 miles from Friant Dam at the 560 feet spillway elevation, (just prior to River Mile 282).  The highest elevation of the Big Sandy is approximately 4,738 feet at its headwaters near Bald Mountain within the Sierra National Forest.  Big Sandy is a naturally flowing intermittent or seasonal stream.  There are no known diversions, or on-stream storage facilities.  There is no known active gauging station on the stream.  Big Sandy is also the watershed with the most land use activities related to development in addition to cattle grazing.  The watershed includes the communities of Prather, Auberry and Tollhouse.  Highway 168 runs through a portion of the Big Sandy valley and Big Sandy Bluffs.

Sub-watersheds

Sub-watersheds include small ephemeral and intermittent streams flowing directly into the San Joaquin River.  Many do not have names and are quite localized.  Other noted streams include:

Other streams flow out of the study area further downstream into the San Joaquin River below Friant Dam.  This would include in particular the North Fork of Little Dry Creek in Fresno County.  There are over 173 miles of streams and river classified as “Other” within the assessment area (see watershed area map).

Springs and Ponds

There are a significant number of ponds used for livestock.  Many of these capture the run-off from winter and spring storms in ephemeral watercourses.  It is not known if there are any on-stream ponds that have been developed for livestock.  There are a number of springs in the watershed with varying levels of production.  Those noted have been historically identified through USGS quadrangle maps.

Special Stream Features

Finegold Creek and Big Sandy Creek are known for “grotto” features in which certain segments of these creeks flow below large granite boulders and basaltic talus formations. Known grotto features on the Finegold are on privately owned lands.  The talus formation is located where the Big Sandy flows into the San Joaquin River.  The specific locations and magnitude of these formations have not been determined.

Figure 4 - Springs in the Millerton Area Watershed

Historic Conditions and Chronology

Geological

Table 1 – Geological History of the Millerton area watershed 

The San Joaquin River drainage is very similar to the geological history of the Sierra Nevada range in general.  The history of the watersheds under assessment in the lower elevations begins approximately 500 million years ago during the Paleozoic Era as sedimentary and volcanic deposits.  Subsequently, 120 million years ago during the Mesozoic Era, magma intrusions 4-5 miles beneath the surface were formed and cooled creating the great Sierran granitic batholith.  Fifty to 10 million years ago during the Tertiary Period, uplift and erosion started to expose the granite and developed gravelly debris.  Ten million years ago a great flow of lava originating from present-day Nevada flowed along the then existing course of the San Joaquin River with continued uplift and erosion.  Finally, from about 3 million years ago, there were periods of glacial activity along with continued uplift and erosion that have been the primary geological processes affecting the foothill watersheds.  The prominent “Table” mountain features are the results of these volcanic, glacial uplift and erosive geological processes over millions of years.  Today as, a testament of the effect of those processes, the San Joaquin River cuts its deep course nearly 2,000 feet below the remnant formations of those lava flows that traced the original course of the river 10 million years ago (Table Mountain, Fresno County elevation 1,984 feet and Kennedy Table, Madera County – 2,429 feet).

Cultural

Native American

Figure 5 – Photo of Margaret Baty, Big Sandy Rancheria[10]

Figure 6 – Contemporary location of Yokut and Mono Tribes

Exploration and Settlement

In the 1840’s a number of exploratory expeditions of the San Joaquin Valley and western slopes of the Sierra Nevada began to occur.  Some of the most notable explorations of the San Joaquin and Kings River Basins were led by Captain John C. Fremont.[12]  In 1846 the Mexican-American war broke out and Californians led the Bear Revolt to break away from Mexico as an independent republic.  By then, people from the United States and elsewhere were beginning to settle in California.  In 1848, gold was discovered by James Marshall at Sutter’s Mill on the American River near Coloma.  By the following year, the rush was on – and thousands of people known as the 49ers began streaming in.

[12] Fremont: Explorer for a Restless Nation, Ferol Egan  - 1977

Statehood

In September, 1850 California became the 31^st state of the union.  By then, the Gold Rush in the Mother Lode that spanned the northern and central Sierra Nevada was well underway.  The San Joaquin River Basin is the southernmost extent of the more significant mining activities.  In 1851, on the San Joaquin River, Fort Miller was established as a temporary headquarters for the Commissioners during the latter part of the Mariposa Indian War, (California State Historic Landmark 584).  The peace treaty ending the war was signed there on April 29, 1851.  The village of Rootville grew into the town of Millerton, which became the first seat of Fresno County in 1856.  Today, the former site of Fort Miller is now inundated by Millerton Lake.  The only remnant now remaining of the town is the Millerton Historical Courthouse at the South shore of Millerton Lake State Recreation Area.[13]

Natural Resources

Timber

For over 100 years logging was the economic mainstay for many of the communities within the watershed study area.  Both North Fork, Madera County and Auberry in Fresno County on opposite sides of the Upper San Joaquin River had mills operating until 1994.  Today, the town of North Fork is headquarters for the Bass Lake District Ranger office, Sierra National Forest.  The town of Prather, Fresno County is headquarters for the High Sierra District Ranger office, Sierra National Forest.  Currently, small scale timber salvaging, thinning and harvesting is occurring within the Sierra National Forest and on Southern California Edison lands surrounding Shaver Lake.  Today, very little if any logging is still occurring within the watershed study area.  Logs are transported out the area for processing.

Mining

Historically beginning in the 1850’s, numerous placer and lode mining activities occurred within the assessment study area.  Official mining districts include Finegold (and Quartz Mountain) and Hildreth, Madera County.  In Fresno County this would include the Temperance and Friant Districts.[14]  One of the more notable mines was the Sullivan mine from 1853 to 1915 (Temperance District), of which $100,000 of gold was produced and appears to be the longest operating.  Today it is not known what, if any, residual effects on water quality may remain due to the use of mercury (quicksilver) for capturing the gold or the extent of erosion due to physical alterations of drainage areas.

Figure 7 – Historic mining operations in the Upper San Joaquin River Drainage

Other metals historically extracted were copper and zinc.  Mines in the vicinity would include Fresno Copper.  Today, only non-mineral extraction of aggregate material occurs for use as landscaping material, road base and for construction materials such as concrete.  None of this extraction or quarrying activity is known to take place within the assessment study area.

Hydroelectric

The Upper San Joaquin River Basin is well noted for historically being the first major source of hydroelectricity generated in the state of California.  Between 1910 and 1955, eight hydroelectric facilities were constructed.  Today, both Southern California Edison Company (SCE) and Pacific Gas and Electric (PG&E) operate this series of sophisticated hydroelectric storage facilities and diversions along the San Joaquin River drainage.  None of the diversions make their way out of the drainage.  However as a result, the natural hydrology of the upper San Joaquin River basin has been altered due to the hydroelectric operations requirements of these facilities.

All storage and power generation operations are licensed under the Federal Electrical Regulatory Commission otherwise known as FERC.  All re-licensing requirements addressing potential impacts to hydrology, fisheries, wildlife migration, cultural and natural resources are the responsibility of FERC.  Excluding PG&E’s Kerchoff Lake with the A.G. Wishon Powerhouse facility and Kerchoff Powerhouse 1 and 2 facilities at the San Joaquin River Gorge Recreational Area, all FERC licensed operations are above the watershed assessment area.  Within the watershed study area are approximately 30 miles of submergences and diversions.  There are eight surface storage facilities for power generation noted:

Table 2 – Listing of Hydroelectric Storage facilities and Operators

Grazing

Grazing in the western foothills of the Sierra Nevada has been a multi-generational occupation that has dominated the landscape for nearly 150 years.  Since the diminishment of logging, the raising of cattle and to a lesser extent sheep has been the predominant land-use of the watershed along with recreational activities.  Today, there are a significant number of largely undeveloped parcels in the watershed study area which are sparely populated and used as rangeland.

Fisheries

Historically, the upper San Joaquin River Basin was a very rich fishery that supported salmon (Chinook or King) and native trout.  Even with the advent of upper basin storage facilities being constructed and operated in the early 1910’s, a viable anadromous fishery of spring and fall salmon spawning runs continued to occur until about 1950.[15]  Today, there is a fish hatchery in the town of Friant that produces trout and Kokanee (a non-native salmon) for planting in various lakes and streams.

Figure 8 – Photo of Chinook or King Salmon caught on the San Joaquin River in the 1940s[16]

Wildlife

As with most areas of California, a wide variety of wildlife was endemic to the area.  The Native American and subsequently early settlers depended upon various types of wildlife and plants as sources of food and clothing.   The only known modern extinction of wildlife in the area would include the California Grizzly (1924) and possibly the California condor.  Today, Bald Eagles winter in the Millerton area.  Golden Eagles are year round residents.  Black bears are known to frequent portions of the watershed.  Mule deer, coyotes, bobcats and even beaver are common residents.  Various reptiles and amphibians such as the Western Pond Turtle and Yellow-legged Frog can be seen.  Vernal pools have thriving populations of different species of fairy shrimp.  Further on, Section 6 of the assessment publication is devoted exclusively to aquatic, riparian and upland biodiversity and habit.

Climate

Precipitation

Contemporary precipitation records for the Millerton Area Watershed were made available through the California Data Exchange Center (CDEC – http://cdec.water.ca.gov/).  Data was obtained from three stations: Friant Government Camp (FGC – 1900 to current), Auberry (ABR – 1915 to 2002) and the North Fork Ranger Station (NFR – 1904 to current).  These records are the most complete, and complement the profile of the watershed from low elevation (410 feet) semi-arid conditions to mid elevation (2,090 feet) and significantly increased rainfall – to a final station elevation of 2,630 feet where the greatest rainfall was recorded within the watershed assessment area.  The following is the CDEC Station information for the 3 sites:

Table 3 – Listing of Precipitation Stations in Millerton watershed

Friant Government Camp (FGC)

Auberry (ABR)

North Fork Ranger Station (NFR)

Figure 9 – Comparison of Average Monthly Precipitation: Friant, Auberry and North Fork Stations

Figure 10 – Accumulated Precipitation by Month (Inches): Friant, Auberry and North Fork Stations

Figure 11 – Percentage of Precipitation by Month: Friant, Auberry and North Fork Stations

The following are the Statistical Definitions:

Temperature

The Millerton area watershed is generally influenced by the San Joaquin Valley.  The spring season starts out in the low 70’s, Fahrenheit – and then climb into the 90’s by mid-June.  Summers are generally very hot, exceeding 100 degrees Fahrenheit for many days.  Fall begins the cooling trend towards the 80’s range.  By winter, it is usually fairly cool – with daytime temperatures in the low 60’s and evenings where a heavy frost can occur and temperatures down into the 30’s and 40’s or colder.  However, the valley fog rarely extends into the foothill elevations above about 1,000 feet.

Paleo-climate

An interesting perspective on the historic variations of climate and their magnitude and duration is the science of paleo-climatology.  Through tree ring analysis (dendro-chronology[17]), and reviewing historic chronicles of significant variations in weather patterns over extended periods (e.g. “Little Ice Age” and “Medieval Warm Period”) a reconstruction of a region’s prior climate can be achieved to some level of accuracy.  Synthesizing these various sources of climate information by “looking back” over time is useful in estimating historic temperature and moisture conditions – and whether current climate conditions are relatively greater or lesser than those of the past.  Future trends in climate such as “global” warming require extensive research – and may not be scientifically conclusive.  A study of the Yosemite region had made extensive effort to articulate possible historic climate conditions.[18]  In the case of the Millerton watershed it can be stated that its condition can be affected based upon climate (precipitation and temperature) changes of different durations and magnitudes.

Land Use and Trends

Communities

Population Densities and Locations

Within or closely adjoining the watershed study area is six unincorporated communities recognized by the US Census Bureau:

Ÿ  Auberry – Fresno County

Ÿ  Friant – Fresno County

Ÿ  North Fork, Madera County

Ÿ  O’Neals, Madera County

Ÿ  Prather, Fresno County

Ÿ  Tollhouse, Fresno County

 The population of these communities increased from 9,679 to 12,042 based on comparisons of the 1990 and 2000 US Census.  This represents a 24 percent population increase in 10 years.  Average population density over the 231 square miles equates to 52 people per square mile.  However, the majority of the population is clustered around these six communities and predominantly in the 4 Fresno County Communities.

Figure 13 – Geographical location of communities

Specific Planning Areas

There are only two known planning areas within or closely adjoining the watershed study area.  These would be:

Ÿ  Millerton New Town Specific Plan Area, Fresno County

Ÿ  North Fork, Madera County

Millerton New Town Specific Plan Area is outside of the town of Friant and across from Millerton State Recreational Area.  The specific plan allows for the potential development of 3,500 homes.

North Fork’s planning area is directed towards the town’s revitalization.  The North Fork Community Development Council is a significant participant in this effort.

All other areas are based on current zoning as designated in each county’s general plan.  In Fresno County this is the Sierra-North Regional Plan, which establishes land-use designations and parcel densities.

Figure 14 – General illustration of parcel densities and prominent land-use activities

Economic Activities

Commercial

Agriculture

There is very little agriculture that requires irrigation that is within the watershed study area.  Outside the town of O’Neals, Madera County off of Road 200 is a vineyard for winemaking.  A cherry orchard exists on Auberry Road southwest of the assessment study area.

Ranching

Probably well over 75 percent of the watershed is or can be devoted towards ranching.  Economic information as it relates to this locality has not been determined.  However, its significance is also measured as a tradition or way of life within the watershed – and gives meaning to the term working landscape as a natural and cultural legacy.

Timber

As noted earlier, very little actual timber harvesting occurs on private or public lands within the watershed assessment area at this time.  However, there are two US Forest Service district offices located in North Fork and Prather that provide support to the local economy.

Recreation and Tourism

Recreation and tourism resources are fairly significant to this area.  Millerton State Recreational Area operated by the California Department of Parks and Recreation and the San Joaquin River Gorge Recreational Area (formerly Squaw Leap) operated by the US Bureau of Land Management are the two major recreational resources.  Additionally, there is day use, camping and aquatic activities at Smalley Cove, Kerchoff Lake that is operated by PG&E.   There is also what is known as the San Joaquin River Trail which extends from Millerton Lake over the crest of the Sierra Nevada to Devil’s Postpile National Monument and Mammoth Mountain.  In addition the Sierra Foothill Conservancy owns nearly 4,000 acres of preserves (McKenzie and Black Mountain) that are available to the public for docent-led hikes and educational programs. 

The amount of recreational resources for hiking, camping and aquatic activities such as boating and fishing may amount to almost 20 percent of the watershed.  The communities of the watershed are also “gateways” to other recreational resources in the higher elevations of the upper San Joaquin River Basin.  More recently, the County of Fresno’s Office of Tourism has embarked on the identification and promotion of these resources.

Natural Resources

Within the watershed area the greatest natural resource is rangeland for grazing, viable wildlife habitat and the open land itself for surface water production.  The vast majority of the watershed is sparsely populated with very little development that utilizes seasonal surface water run-off for irrigation and domestic purposes.  Historically, the area was noted for mineral extraction, in particular gold and some copper.  Today most of the watershed is not heavily utilized for agricultural, municipal or industrial uses.  In the upper reaches, the transition zone from predominantly oak woodlands to primarily conifer forests begins.  Again, utilization of forest materials is minimal in these reaches.  Along the San Joaquin and its major tributaries hydroelectric operations make significant use of the surface run-off generated in the upper reaches.  Crane Valley (Bass Lake) along Willow Creek begins the journey for generating power at A.G.Wishon Powerhouse at Kerchoff Lake.  Kerchoff Stations 1 and 2 are below Kerchoff Dam within the San Joaquin River Gorge Recreational Area, with water diverted through a series of tunnels.

Infrastructures

The most significant infrastructure within the watershed is the road system.  There are estimated to be over 450 miles of improved and unimproved roads within the watershed.  Most are two lane roads.  There are also a significant number of unpaved ranch roads, and some forest roads within the watershed.  A total of 338 miles of roads are estimated for Madera County and 112 miles in Fresno County.

Figure 15 – Map of Roadways in the Watershed Assessment Area

All community areas have access to on-grid electrical power, ground-based telephone, and cellular service.  There is no access to natural gas through pipes into households and businesses.  Fuel for heating is primarily provided through liquid propane being transported by truck – then stored in tanks on individual premises.  Water for domestic and other purposes is primarily through wells that have been drilled in the fractured granite formations.  Sewage from individual households and businesses is treated by way of septic systems with leach fields.  There are a number of maintenance and service districts for water (surface and ground sourced) and for the treatment of effluent.  However, the majority of systems throughout the watershed are well and septic-based.

Land Ownership

Private, Public and Trusts

Nearly 80 percent of the watershed is privately owned.  Many parcels have been in the same family for generations with very little change to land use over time.  A significant number of these properties are under the provisions of the Williamson and Super-Williamson property tax program.  Approximately, 16 percent is public land managed by State or Federal agencies.  The largest management operation is performed by the US Bureau of Reclamation (USBR) in relation to Millerton Lake and the Friant Operation under the Central Valley Project (CVP).  The California Department of Parks and Recreation has an agreement with the USBR that allows for Millerton to be operated as a State Recreational Area (SRA) in Fresno and Madera Counties.  Other holdings include the US Bureau of Land Management, in particular 4,600 acres at the San Joaquin River Gorge Recreational Area (Fresno and Madera County). Other Public lands under Federal management include the Sierra National Forest (Fresno and Madera County) and the 4,400 acre San Joaquin Experimental Range in the Cottonwood watershed in Madera County – both by the US Forest Service. These areas amount to approximately 25,000 acres.

Demographics

Population, Employment and Income

Economically, communities have faltered due to mill closures in North Fork, Madera County and Auberry, Fresno County.  In 1990, North Fork was already hard-pressed.  By 2000, Auberry and Friant had joined the ranks.  Prather, Tollhouse, Fresno County and O’Neals, Madera County have been able to hold up economically as they transform more into “bedroom communities” where residents commute to the Fresno/Clovis metropolitan area.

 Auberry, Fresno County and North Fork in Madera County constitute the greatest populated areas.  Over 70 percent of the population within the watershed is in Fresno County.  Median Household Income (MHI) in four communities is less than the California MHI of $47,493 based upon the 2000 US Census figures.  In fact, the lowest MHI is at 64%, or $30,234 for the town of Friant.  Employment varies from community to community.  Auberry’s unemployment rate earlier this year was 11 percent, (Source: EDD – 03/03).  North Fork’s has been determined to be at 17 percent with an additional 17 percent “underemployment” rate.[19]

There are over 4,040 parcels in the watershed – 2,052 parcels in Madera County and 1,978 parcels in Fresno County.  Assessed valuation of all parcels in the study area is approximately $313.6 million.

·      Assessed Valuation – Property and Improvements

The following table summarizes and compares the population and Median Household Income (MHI) of the six defined communities in the watershed assessment area based upon 1990 and 2000 US Census figures:

Table 4 – Economic analysis of communities based on 1990 and 2000 US Census data[20]

Cultural Resources

There is a significant amount of cultural resources related to the Native American, early American settlement and mining efforts.  Mortar rocks, former village sites, abandoned railroad lines associated with logging and building dams early in the last century (Sugar Pine, Madera County and SJ&E, Fresno County); old homesteads and numerous chronicles attest to the rich cultural heritage of the area.  There are a number of historical societies that are a wealth of information on cultural and natural resources of the upper San Joaquin River Basin.  Native American cultural resources indicating specific locations and significance are not readily obtainable for non-Native individuals and entities.  The Anthropology Department of Fresno Community College has conducted extensive investigations within the San Joaquin Experimental Range in Madera County.

Recreational and Scenic Resources

Scenic resources include The Southern Yosemite Highway (Highway 41) and Sierra Vista Scenic Byway in Madera County.  Within Fresno County, scenic resources would include Table Mountain along Auberry Road, Highway 168 and the Sierra Heritage Scenic Byway.   Much of the foothill areas attract visitors because of their scenic attributes.  As noted earlier, Millerton Lake and the San Joaquin River Gorge Recreational Areas as resources may constitute 20% of the watershed area.  At the easternmost portions, the Sierra National Forest with its recreational resources begins.

Figure 16 – Watershed and San Joaquin River Basin Recreational and Scenic Resources

 SECTION 2 - SURFACE WATER

02/15/06